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| Hpathy Ezine - December, 2008 | ||||
| Agrohomeopathy, Symbiotic Relationships -- V.D. Kaviraj Excerpt from V.D. Kaviraj’s upcoming epic work. |
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SOIL STRUCTURE True science means that the subject under investigation is studied in its totality. All attempts at isolation and reduction of the related parts renders the scientific endeavour a meaningless mumbo-jumbo of unrelated events. The homoeopathic approach to the problems met with in growing plants, whether grown for food or as an exercise in recreation, is scientific in the true sense of the word. It studies pests and diseases, as well as soil problems as symptoms of a totality within the environment. The totality includes the medium in which the plant grows, the climate and weather patterns, the availability of water, nutrients and the occurrence of other organisms in that whole environment, which is the local habitat in the ecosystem.
Soils are as different as people. They possess different compositions, such as mineral soils, clay, sand, organic soils, and their moisture content and nutritional capacity. They also behave in a different manner and attract various amounts of rain. They also contain living organisms such as microbes and fauna,
plant organisms such as roots, rhizomes tubers and bulbs. If we
therefore want to understand a given process within any type of
soil, for example allelopathic interaction, leading to differences
in nutrient uptake or plant development, then that entire process
must be viewed in its totality within the constraints of that soil.
Therefore, each soil is different from any other soil and none are
alike. In one paddock we may encounter two different soils, because
local constraints have made it so in the past. No matter what else
we try to do, the basic structure of the soil can only be changed
by organic matter. It is organic matter which makes a soil a viable
medium to grow crops in and any other soil will have to be helped
by large doses of chemical fertiliser. The first question must always be the dose, since it depends on the dose whether we poison or cure, as Paracelsus already knew in the 15th Century. Homoeopathy offers the advantage of complete control over the dose of any given substance to be used as a means to simply draw away the forces that otherwise eat our crops before they even come to the table. By applying to the soil the remedies found in that soil, we can imitate a natural setting in which the plant is the focus of attention, because the soil of which we speak can only hold a limited amount of species within the constraints of pH and available nutrients and our crop must be one of them. To generalise on a larger scale than we do at present, we accept
the scientific view that similar soils will generate similar circumstances
in regards to nutrient availability, allelochemicals present, fungi
and bacteria and/or viruses present, and the components of the soil
we already listed above. Hence there have been scientific studies
on how allelochemicals act in different types of clay. While such
a reductionist approach as above may be useful, it does not tell
us about interactions of the soil components and is thus limited
in its view. 1. Similar soils have similar pH. Here we have the quintessential points of these paragraphs which show that the situation above-ground is a reflection of the situation in the soil and the remedies made from the plants above the ground will have medicinal relationships between them, at least for plants. All elements from the habitat can be used to alleviate any problem the crop is suffering from. An entire range of substances can be used to target a specific pest or disease and the results are completely beyond one’s wildest dreams. This is no hype, but practical application over a long period of many years. But let us return to the studies and learn how to extract remedies for this Utopian type of gardening and see if it can be turned into a reality. Reductionist it may be, but we shall see how this limited view is possibly only in the eye of the beholder. Seen from a higher perspective, even titbits of information may hold the key to the development of suitable remedies. Soils have structural and biological properties that make for differences
with what we call rocks, although these have been the parent material.
Most soils originate from sediments and thus they are as different
as the mountains from which they once came. Some have amassed sediments
from different rock over which they have passed on their way to
the sea, while others have side arms that come from different sources
in different types of mountains. Hence the soils in the plains are
as different as the sediments brought with the rivers. Nonetheless,
we call sedimentary soils from rivers, river-clay and ascribe certain
properties to it, such as very fertile, not too heavy like sea-clay
and easier to work, but not very porous – often lacking in
organic matter – leading sometimes to damping off, even at
more advanced ages. Ultimately the origins of our soils can be traced back to the weathering of igneous rock, such as diorite and granite, sedimentary rock, such as limestone and sand stone, or metamorphic rock, such as marble and slate. This weathering process produces coarse to fine particles, such as gravels, sand, clays and silts, which are often composed of only minerals. These minerals are always or nearly so, crystalline compound substances, which consist of oxygen, silicon and aluminium, sometimes with appreciable amounts of other minerals, such as iron, calcium, sodium, potassium or magnesium. These eight elements comprise 98% of igneous rocks, while the minor elements, such as phosphorus, titanium or manganese are generally less than 1%. Silicon oxide is the most abundant mineral in all igneous rocks, while the other six elements vary with the mineral composition of their originating rocks. For instance the dominant minerals found in limestone are of course calcite CaCO3, quartz, SiO2, clays and calcium. Soil texture is dependent on particle size, which we note when we investigate some soils like clay, clay loam or sandy clay loam; the particle density, weight of the solid particles divided by the total volume of the particles [which does not include pore space]; bulk density, weight of the soil divided by the total volume [including pore space]. This bulk density runs from 1 to 1.8 g/cm fro mineral soils; because organic matter is highly porous and has a particle density of 1.2 to 1.5 g/cm, the incorporation of organic matter into mineral soil will generally decrease both particle and bulk density. A typical mineral soil has 45% minerals, 5% organic matter and 50% pore space. It takes a long time to build up what now are our soils on which we grow food – from a few 10.000s to hefty millions of years, depending on the makeup of our soils. Rivers break down stones in very fine particles over a relatively short period, since water is both very powerful and moving. On the other hand, soils built up over coastal areas may take a relatively longer period to build up truly, because the sediment is thin and storms may wash away what has been built up over a long period. Where river sediments are accumulated faster, they are courser than sediments from the sea. Particle density is greater in sea clay than in river clay. Much of this material has been brought where it is by gravity, water, wind and other means to accumulate and be deposited as soils with sufficient depth to accommodate for the development of horizons. Horizons form because they have accumulations of organic matter on the topsoil, which are decomposed and incorporated in the rest of the soil, causing transformation of soil minerals from physical and chemical weathering, undergone as part of the cycle of life that lives in our soils. The capillary and/or gravitational movement of water soluble and water suspended substances from the top soil layers to those below and the transformation of these substances by fungi, bacteria and microbes for the benefit of plant life, incorporates other substances in the lower layers of soil. There are five major recognisable horizons but we shall restrict ourselves to the top three, because they are important for plant life. Looking at a vertical section of soil, the first thing that demands the attention is the variation of colour and a certain amount of dead organic matter, a host of living entities, structure and porosity as well as the extent of weathering and erosion. These elements form distinct layers which are known as horizons. Three of these are usually taken into account. TOPSOIL This is the upper region. Here the greatest biological, physical and chemical activity takes place. The major portion of living entities, organic matter and chemical reaction are found here. A host of insects, earthworms, protists, nematodes and decomposer organisms all contribute to the decomposition of leaves, twigs, bark and wood. Plant scientists have gathered sufficient data to understand the behaviour of the different soil components and have given us a tentative overview. This overview includes the reaction of soil components with simple phenolic acids. We may first determine the value of such a reductionist approach. When they draw conclusions based on their evidence, they are limited, because they always use the same plants for the same assays, because they respond well. When designing a scientific study, it is imperative to not only study in vitro, but foremost in vivo, where the circumstances can still be manipulated, such as in a greenhouse setting or even in the open field, where the circumstances are most like real-life. The role of organic acids in the interactions of the life within the soil is the subject of study and we shall see how the findings have important remedies to furnish for agrohomoeopathic cultivation of food crops. There is some uncertainty about the role of organic acids in the soil in some circles, because they do not understand how to look at the whole. The test substances are phenolic acids and others in the role as allelopathic agents in the soil. These acids are the ones we have to keep an eye on to discover new remedies. In this chapter we describe soil system characteristics of interest, such as the nature of the mineral soils with emphasis on organic matter, soil organisms, soil processes and root anatomy, morphology, growth and development. We shall discuss how water-soluble allelochemicals, particularly organic acids, are influenced by these soil system characteristics. There is plenty of phenolic acid literature as can be seen from the Bibliography and this is the type we have studied to come to our conclusions. The behaviour of phenolic acid in the soil is a good indicator how other potential allelochemicals would behave, such as acetic acid, butyric acid, citric acid, formic acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid, malonic acid, proprionic acid, tannic acid and tartaric acid. Some of them we have already tried out in a past, such as acetic, lactic and citric acids and if their action is anything to go by, we might have here a range of remedies for weeds and chlorosis problems, respiration problems and photosynthesis impairment. We may expect action on fungi and bacterial rots and possibly an aid in fruit setting. This we deduce from the fact that acids and fungi do not always like each other and that the acids so far used were all excellent for the problems mentioned. Formic acid has been used as Formica rufa, to keep away ants and to lure them to traps, but never as a remedy on any plants. Let us discover what the other party found in their research on these acids. SECOND HORIZON Undecomposed, and partially decomposed organic layer that forms just on top of the soil. This is the layer where nutrients and small particles of organic matter are deposited. This process uses percolation, or moving down through the soil. It is self-evident that when much less organic matter is available erosion is maximised, while when organic matter is plentiful erosion is reduced to a minimum. Here insects and fungi decompose the organic substances, such as leaves, twigs, ashes, dead insect and animal bodies and straw, old blossoms and other organic material. In this horizon life is a feast and all partake. Worms from below come up and roll up leaves, which they drag into the ground and consume to their heart’s content. Insects chew on twigs to extract the last bits of sap and fungi overcome leaves, corpses and other material to reduce it to its basic components, after which it is further worked into the ground. There are millions of different living entities per cm3 and they all have their function in reducing organic matter to its basic components suitable for plant life in a production/reduction cycle we call life. We see also a great variety among them, because there are so many different functions to fulfil in the subterranean world. Plants need nutrients in small sizable bites – not much larger and in similar suspension in colloids as homoeopathic remedies. Bacteria release the nutrients from the organic substrate in a reduction cycle, which the plant then consumes through a reaction cycle – the exact opposite from the bacteria. Viruses are the police force of the plant world, much as they function in humans. It is of course illogical to assign causal qualities to an entity, which is abundant at the final stage of disease and is therefore as much a result as all other symptoms. We have learned in primary school that cause and result are always two different things. Fungi are of course the prime decomposers. We shall later return to these fascinating entities. For now we mention them because of the problems faced by crops – fungal attack. On a bare soil, the fungi have nothing to eat and since survival is the name of the game, they will attack the living plants, because there is nothing else to eat. Hence it is forced by agricultural practices to attack the crop. Making sure there is enough organic matter would keep the fungi in check, since they have other things to eat. Even homeopathy can do little against deliberate faulty practise
and not implementing the recommendations is to really believe in
a truly Utopian farm – where one does not have to abandon
faulty practice but hopes to redress everything with homoeopathic
remedies. However, “He must be capable of removing the causes,
such as bad habits, undernourishment and exposure to mental and
emotional aggravating circumstances and if he is able to remove
them he is a true practitioner of the healing arts.” (Hahnemann) ELIMINATION The lowest horizon is where excess elements are leached out. It consists of larger particles of rock of any one kind; sand, lime or basalt, to name but a few, gravel and other debris. For the purpose of this book only the two top layers are of significance. Dependent on the amount of organic matter, a soil is either a sponge
or it is not. From an ecological point of view, bare soil cultivation,
with little or no organic content, adds to global warming, because
of its low water retention properties. A soil that acts as a sponge,
cools down the air directly above it, thus helping plants to cope
better with heat, reducing evaporation, both of the soil and the
plant. Reflection is reduced to the minimum possible, if sufficient
organic matter is suspended in the soil, while the lack of it increases
reflection of heat. Also dependent on the content of organic matter
is the determination about the quality of the soil - whether it
is active or passive. Modern agricultural practises have produced
vast tracts of passive soils, because nutrients have been given
priority in the growth of plants. Soil is however much more than
a medium in which to suspend nutrients. Soil is very dependent on light and air, however strange this may appear. Air and light are usually associated with above ground phenomena. Yet without light and air, even in the soil, essential elements to life are left out, which plants require for their immune systems. Science knows much more about the part of plants, which grows above ground than about the roots, although this picture is changing fast. The processes in the roots are fairly well known, but little is known about the interaction of soil and root. The emphasis is placed on the nutrients, while the pH - determining the acidity or alkalinity of the soil - is studied only in the context of the nutrient levels. Structure, biological activity and organic content are studied only in relation to these same levels, while the knowledge thus gathered is used only to ’improve’ the manufacture, synthetic or otherwise, of the nutrients.
ORGANIC MATTER. This consists of plant debris, as we have seen, dead animals, insects, and other biological entities. This forms the food of a host of other insects, such as ants, slaters, snails and slugs, many fungi, as moulds and mildews, bacteria and viruses. These organisms are called collectively decomposers - they break down organic matter into smaller particles and compounds, which in turn are processed into the various nutrients. They are always in relation to and in connection with the organisms which produce them. These organisms release these nutrients in a steady stream, to feed the plants. Fine particles of organic matter cling to the roots also and any plant is a decomposer in its own right. The roots, through the process of growth, bring light and air into the soil, together with the rest of the biomass. Microorganisms are of two types; aerobic and anaerobic, the former needs air to function properly, while the latter needs carbon dioxide for the same purpose. INSECTS Many of the ‘pests’, identified because of their habit
to feed on our food crops, are actually supposed to feed on organic
debris, just as that is the function of fungi, bacteria and viruses.
In the absence of dead organic matter these organisms are forced
to feed on living plants, in All stable natural systems have those switches, but not all populations do. In Australia we see this in the rapid explosion of the rabbit and cane toad populations. In agriculture, species like the locust, the aphid or the Colorado beetle, rodents like rats and mice display the phenomenon that when provided with sufficient food, will rapidly produce enormously more young than the available food supply. A farmer sowing a crop of their favourite food supply creates a situation where there is a massive reduction in the infant mortality rate of the pest. Fluctuation implies relationship, because there is a flow between the living beings in an ecosystem. As man exploits nature he disturbs the flow, when his dealings are disharmonious. Thus man is at war with nature, while he could do much better if he sees her as a lover. Harvesting from nature can be seen as another form of natural death within an ecosystem, provided the spacing between plants is kept as natural as possible. In this way nature can be fooled into believing that harvesting is an absolutely natural occurrence, similar to grazing and foraging animals. To this end it is imperative that the immediate surroundings of food crops are as natural as possible. MICROORGANISMS
The microorganisms are involved in reaction/reduction cycles, making nutrients available or unavailable to plants. Such is dependent for a large part on the soil pH. Acidic soils have fewer elements available to plants with increasing acidity. Alkaline soils may also be entirely inactive in the release of nutrients, depending on the microorganisms present. It has been shown by many researchers that the activity of microorganisms is highly dependent on soil pH because the level of pH determines which organisms are present in the soil and hence how reaction/reduction cycles take place. FUNGI Introduction The following tree diagram shows the relationships between several groups of fungal organisms:
As the sister group of animals and part of the eukaryotic crown group that radiated about a billion years ago, the fungi constitute an independent group equal in rank to that of plants and animals. They share with animals the ability to export hydrolytic enzymes that break down biopolymers, which can be absorbed for nutrition. Rather than requiring a stomach to accomplish digestion, fungi live in their own food supply and simply grow into new food as the local environment becomes nutrient depleted. The root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the Tree of Life. The basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree. This.ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups, which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right. Most biologists have seen dense filamentous fungal colonies growing on rich nutrient agar plates, but in nature the filaments can be much longer and the colonies less dense. When one of the filaments contacts a food supply, the entire colony mobilizes and reallocates resources to exploit the new food. Should all food become depleted, sporulation is triggered. Although the fungal filaments and spores are microscopic, the colony can be very large with individuals of some species rivalling the mass of the largest animals or plants. Prior to mating in sexual reproduction, individual fungi communicate with other individuals chemically via pheromones. In every phylum at least one pheromone has been characterized and they range from sesquiterpines and derivatives of the carotenoid pathway in chytridiomycetes and zygomycetes to oligopeptides in ascomycetes and basidiomycetes. A PRIMARY DECOMPOSER Within their varied natural habitats fungi usually are the primary decomposer organisms present. Many species are free-living saprobes (users of carbon fixed by other organisms) in woody substrates, soils, leaf litter, dead animals and animal exudates. The large cavities eaten out of living trees by wood-decaying fungi provide nest holes for a variety of animals and extinction of the ivory billed woodpecker was due in large part to loss, through human activity, of nesting trees in bottom land hardwoods. In some low nitrogen environments several independent groups of fungi have adaptations such as nooses and sticky knobs with which to trap and degrade nematodes and other small animals. A number of references on fungal ecology are available (Carroll and Wicklow, 1992; Cooke and Whipps, 1993; Dix and Webster, 1995). However, many other fungi are biotrophs and in this role a number of successful groups form symbiotic associations with plants (including algae), animals (especially arthropods), and prokaryotes. Examples are lichens, mycorrhizae and leaf and stem endophytes. Although lichens may seem infrequent in polluted cities, they can form the dominant vegetation in Nordic environments and there is a better than 80% chance that any plant you find is mycorrhizal. Leaf and stem endophytes are a more recent discovery, and some of these fungi can protect the plants they inhabit from herbivory and even influence flowering and other aspects of plant reproductive biology. Fungi are our most important plant pathogens, and include rusts, smuts, and many ascomycetes such as the agents of Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight. Among the other well-known associations are fungal parasites of animals. Humans, for example, may succumb to diseases caused by Pneumocystis (a type of pneumonia that affects individuals with suppressed immune systems), Coccidioides (valley fever), Ajellomyces (blastomycosis and histoplasmosis), and Cryptococcus (cryptococcosis) (Kwon-Chung and Bennett, 1992). Fungal spores may be actively or passively released for dispersal by several effective methods. The air we breathe is filled with spores of species that are air dispersed. These usually are species that produce large numbers of spores, and examples include many species pathogenic on agricultural crops and trees. Other species are adapted for dispersal within or on the surfaces of animals (particularly arthropods). Some fungi are rain splash or flowing water dispersed. In a few cases the forcible release of spores is sufficient to serve as the dispersal method as well. The function of some spores is not primarily for dispersal, but to allow the organisms to survive as resistant cells during periods when the conditions of the environment are not conducive to growth.
Most phyla appear to be terrestrial in origin, although all major groups have invaded marine and freshwater habitats. An exception to this generality is the flagellum-bearing phyla Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, and Neocallima-stigomycota (collectively referred to as chytrids), which probably had an aquatic origin. Extant chytrid species also occur in terrestrial environments as plant pathogenic fungi, soil fungi, and even as anaerobic inhabitants of the guts of herbivores such as cows (all Neocallimastigomycota). CHARACTERISTICS Fungi are characterized by non-motile bodies (thalli) constructed of apically elongating walled filaments (hyphae), a life cycle with sexual and asexual reproduction, usually from a common thallus, haploid thalli resulting from zygotic meiosis, and heterotrophic nutrition. Spindle pole bodies, not centrioles, usually are associated with the nuclear envelope during cell division. The characteristic wall components are chitin (beta-1,4-linked homopolymers of N-acetylglucosamine in microcrystalline state) and glucans primarily alpha-glucans (alpha-1,3- and alpha-1,6- linkages) (Griffin, 1994). Exceptions to this characterization of fungi are well known, and include the following: Most species of chytrids have cells with a single, smooth, posteriorly inserted flagellum at some stage in the life cycle and centrioles are associated with nuclear division. The life cycles of most chytrids are poorly studied, but some (Blastocladiomycota) are known to have zygotic meiosis (therefore, alternation between haploid and diploid generations). Certain members of Mucoromycotina, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota may lack hyphal growth during part or all of their life cycles, and, instead, produce budding yeast cells. Most fungal species with yeast growth forms contain only minute amounts of chitin in the walls of the yeast cells. A few species of Ascomycota (Ophiostomataceae) have cellulose in their walls, and certain members of Blastocladiomycota and Entomophthoromycotina lack walls during part of their life cycle (Alexopoulos et al., 1996). We continue with the history of these fungal diseases on grains, with which the first ‘cure’ with antibiotics spontaneously took place. For these belong in the class of Ascomycota, like all penicillins and most other antibiotics. From the above tree, these fungi are the ones that have our interest here. The basidiomycota are their close brothers, and some of these fungi also have found employ as medicines, of which the two under discussion in this book. In the past as well as the present, most grains were and are prone
to fungal diseases of which ‘mother corn’ or secale
cereale, also known as claviceps purpurea, is the most famous, since
it is surmised that it was also the precursor to LSD. While superficially
similar in chemical structure, the effects of these two substances
could not be further removed from each other as they are. In accordance
with its common name, secale cereale lives on grains mainly. Darnel is another grain implicated in fungal diseases. It was often eaten when the other grain harvests had been eaten by pests and a famine threatened. It also had serious consequences.. DEPOSITION Although chemical analysis is useful to determine the relative amounts of nutrients in certain stages of growth of the healthy plant in natural surroundings, it is by no means an exclusive yardstick, as different plants have different requirements in different ecosystems.
It is difficult to compare pH readings in water to pH readings
in calcium chloride. A rough guide to convert from pHw to pHCa is
to subtract 0.8 from the pH in water measurement (although the real
difference in pH at extreme may be from 0.6 to 1.2). SYMPTOMS OF TOPSOIL ACIDITY • Nodulation failure of legumes - reddening of stems and
petioles on pasture legumes, or yellowing and death of oldest leaves
on grain legumes indicate nitrogen deficiency. INFLUENCE OF PH ON NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY Plant nutrient availability varies quite dramatically with soil pH. In very acid soils all the major plant nutrients (nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca) and manganese (Mn)) and also trace element molybdenum (Mo), may be unavailable to plants, or only available in limited quantities. The other trace elements may be available in such soils in quantities sufficient to have a toxic effect. Some non-essential elements, notably aluminium may also be available in toxic amounts in acid soils. The picture is reversed in alkaline soils where the trace elements iron, manganese, copper, zinc and boron, so readily available in acid soils, may be unavailable to plants, even though they are present in the soil in adequate amounts and molybdenum is readily available. SYMPTOMS OF SUBSOIL ACIDITY
Molybdenum defeciency in kai lan and pak choi: leaf blade narrows and distorts, sometimes thickens; leaf stalks may be twisted. The soils suitable for pulse crops (field pea, albus lupin, chickpea,
faba bean and lentil) are loam and clay soils that occur in about
25% of the 18 million hectares used for agriculture in southwestern
Australia. They are amongst the most fertile soils used for agriculture
in WA. Loam and clay soils, other than those mentioned in some zones, do not generally require copper, zinc or molybdenum, although isolated deficiencies of zinc have been reported. 60 g of molybdenum is contained in 150 g of sodium molybdate,
or in 112 g of molybdenum trioxide. |
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The
homoeopathic approach is systemic - it does not compartmentalize
the soil into plants and nutrients, nor does it limit itself to
organic content and biomass. Although they are essential building
blocks forming a healthy soil, other non-visible elements, perceivable
only by their results, are included as well. We have bacteria and
viruses, allelochemicals pheromones and pollinators, predators and
pests, companion plants and elemental substances that all form part
of that systemic approach. From the totality of symptoms we derive
as much information as we can. We know when a plant releases certain
chemicals to achieve a phase of its development or to defend itself
against pest and disease attack. We also know that certain diseases
only come with certain weather types and that pests follow fertilizer
gifts, especially Kali and Phosphorus. Because we have this knowledge
at our fingertips, we are capable of determining which plant or
other remedy to use in a particular situation. In the case of a
developmental problem, we seek out a remedy made from a plant or
an element that would be released around that time and so influence
that development in a positive manner. In the case of tomatoes,
one gives a dose of Phosphorus, because it is bloom time. Promptly,
the poor plant is infested with aphids and Coccinella is the remedy.
In the same tomatoes when it goes from flowers to fruits, we need
Ocimum to do the trick, because basil releases a chemical in the
soil when the tomato sets fruit. It is through viewing such relations
that we can understand and deal with problems arising in the growing
of our crops. We imitate nature and provide an environment that
resembles the natural one as close as possible. This is the secret
of growing crops in the best possible manner – employ the
relations of elemental nutrients, plants and insects to recreate
a virtual diverse environment in which the circumstances are as
close to nature as possible. 
order
to restore the imbalance, created by bare soil cultivation. In nature,
the sum total of events is designed to maintain balance. Balance
means even spacing, because it will prevent the crowding of one
particular species. Monocultures are designed to outdo natural arrangements.
Space in nature tends to be occupied by as great a variety as the
natural habitat allows. Through this mechanism nature limits disease
and the consequent elimination of any one species of plant, insect
or animal. Too many plants or animals of the same species occupying
too small or large a space triggers the mechanism that prevents
breeding and makes up for excess through more rapid death, by means
of pests and diseases.
Microorganisms
such as bacteria, bacilli and viruses are also present in the soil,
some in very large numbers. It has been shown that in 1cm2 of soil
as many as a billion bacteria may live, although numbers may vary
from 10000 to a million as common occurrences. Depending on where
the soil has been collected – the rhizosphere being more densely
populated than the soil without any roots – these numbers
increase with the amount of biological activity. 
Fungi
are vital for their ecosystem functions, some of which we have reviewed
in the previous paragraphs. In addition a number of fungi are used
in the processing and flavouring of foods (baker's and brewer's
yeasts, Penicillia in cheese-making) and in production
of antibiotics and organic acids. Other fungi produce secondary
metabolites such as aflatoxins that may be potent toxins and carcinogens
in food of birds, fish, humans, and other mammals.
So
far the nature of fungi and some of their different classes, of
which the Ascomycota, Chitridomycota and Microsporidia
but also the Zygomycota with its subclass Mucoromycotina
are of interest to us. This is because the first class is used for
antibiotics and the next two classes are known for their ability
to cause disease. However, before we proceed further with the antibiotics,
we first like to impress upon the reader the dangers of fungi that
may infest our grains, which are related to antibiotics and for
which orthodoxy has no treatment or cure.
In
the soil above this horizon the nutrients and allelochemicals are
deposited. In general ten of the elements are believed to be nutrients.
These ten elements, carbon hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur and iron, were about a hundred
years ago designated as essential elements for plant growth. In
the early 1900s manganese was added. The importance of silica has
only recently, around 1985, received the full attention it deserves.
At present we know that copper, boron and molybdenum play an important
role as well, while for some plants cobalt and aluminum are necessary.
In speaking of inorganic nutrients, it follows that there must be
organic forms as well. Little is said about them in the textbooks,
maybe due to the fact that inorganic chemistry is not interested
in the investigation of the organic content of the elements.
Deficiencies
will create havoc in equal manner as excesses. The homoeopathic
approach requires that which is natural to a particular ecosystem.
In some the soil may be dead, as in the desert, or rich, as in the
rainforest. Soils are as individual as the plants that prefer a
particular type. Thus the soil type is the first point of investigation,
together with its structure and the amount of biomass. In the case
of dead soils, much can be done to revive it, by the selection of
the appropriate remedy.
•
Poor root growth (stubby and few fine roots) below 10 cm. Roots
are often restricted to the topsoil area for no physical reason
(e.g. no hardpan layers or tight clays that may normally stop root
growth) since roots will not grow into a soil layer of high acidity.
In
addition, field pea is also successfully grown on marginally acidic
sandy duplex soils (sand over loam or clay) in the region, and is
by far the most widely grown pulse crop in WA. 
